Cervical cancer screening outcomes for HIV-positive women in the Lubombo and Manzini regions of Eswatini-Prevalence and predictors of a positive visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) screen.

This study aimed to describe the prevalence and predictors of a positive VIA (visual inspection with acetic acid) cervical cancer screening test in women living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). We retrospectively analysed data from women aged ≥15 who accessed VIA screening from health facilities in the Lubombo and Manzini regions of Eswatini. Sociodemographic and clinical data from October 2020 to June 2023 were extracted from the client management information system (CMIS). VIA screening outcome was categorised into negative, positive, or suspicious. A logistic regression model estimated the adjusted odds ratio (AOR) of the predictors of a positive VIA screen at p<0.05 with 95% confidence intervals. Of 23,657 participants, 60.8% (n = 14,397) were from the Manzini region. The mean age was 33.3 years (standard deviation 7.0), and 33% (n = 7,714) were first-time screens. The prevalence of a positive VIA was 2.6% (95% CI: 2.2%, 3.0%): 2.8% (95% CI: 2.2%, 3.5%) in Lubombo and 2.4% (95% CI: 2.0%, 2.9%) in Manzini (p = 0.096). Screening at mission-owned (AOR 1.40; p = 0.001), NGO-owned (AOR 3.08; p<0.001) and industrial/workplace-owned health facilities (AOR 2.37; p = 0.044) were associated with increased odds of a positive VIA compared to government-owned health facilities. Compared to those aged 25-34, the odds of a positive VIA increased by 1.26 for those in the 35-44 age group (AOR 1.26; p = 0.017). Predictors with lower odds for a positive VIA test were: being on anti-retroviral therapy (ART) for 5-9 years (AOR 0.76; p = 0.004) and ≥10 years (AOR 0.66; p = 0.002) compared to <5 years; and having an undetectable viral load (AOR 0.39; p<0.001) compared to unsuppressed. Longer duration on ART and an undetectable viral load reduced the odds, while middle-aged women and screening at non-public health facilities increased the odds of a positive VIA screen.

Secondary syphilis presenting with alopecia and leukoderma in a stable HIV-positive patient in a resource-limited setting: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Syphilis is an infection caused by the bacteria Treponema pallidum. It is mainly transmitted through oral, vaginal and anal sex, in pregnancy and through blood transfusion. Syphilis develops in primary, secondary, latent and tertiary stages and presents with different clinical features at each stage. Infected patients can remain asymptomatic for several years and, without treatment, can, in extreme cases, manifest as damage in several organs and tissues, including the brain, nervous tissue, eyes, ear and soft tissues. In countries with a high human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) burden, syphilis increases the risk of HIV infections. We report the case of a young HIV-positive black woman who presented with alopecia and hypopigmentation as features of secondary syphilis. CASE PRESENTATION: A virologically suppressed 29-year-old woman on Anti-retroviral Therapy (ART) presented with a short history of generalized hair loss associated with a non-itchy maculopapular rash and skin depigmentation on the feet. Limited laboratory testing confirmed a diagnosis of secondary syphilis. She was treated with Benzathine Penicillin 2.4MU. After receiving three doses of the recommended treatment, the presenting features cleared, and the patient recovered fully. CONCLUSION: This case demonstrates the importance of a high index of clinical suspicion and testing for syphilis in patients presenting with atypical clinical features of secondary syphilis, such as hair loss and hypopigmentation. It also highlights the challenges in diagnosing and clinically managing syphilis in a resource-limited setting.

Corrigendum: Diabetes-Tuberculosis Care in Eswatini: A Qualitative Study of Opportunities and Recommendations for Effective Services Integration.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/ijph.2023.1605551.].

Tuberculosis services during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative study on the impact of COVID-19 and practices for continued services delivery in Eswatini.

Objectives: To describe the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on tuberculosis services and the different approaches healthcare workers adopted to ensure continued tuberculosis service delivery in Eswatini. Study design: This is a qualitative study with a cross-sectional design. Methods: Thirteen nurses and 9 doctors who provide tuberculosis care from 10 health facilities participated in an in-depth interview to describe how the COVID-19 pandemic affected tuberculosis services and the approaches adopted to ensure continued patient care. Twenty in-person and 2 telephone interviews were conducted. The participating facilities were selected based on a ranking criterion of the number of patients seen. Data were analyzed using thematic content analysis. NVivo 12 software was used for qualitative analysis, and the Consolidated Criteria guided the study for Reporting Qualitative research (COREQ). Results: Two major themes emerged: COVID-19 impacted services delivery and access; and best practices that ensured healthcare services delivery. Six sub-themes describe how COVID-19 impacted services: all attention focused on COVID-19; COVID worsened the health system challenges; COVID hindered patients from accessing care; patients defaulted due to the lockdown; COVID impacted the quality of care and increased the risk of infection among healthcare workers. Five sub-themes describe best practices that ensure continued service delivery: Home-based care, Patient support, Patient Education, Integrated Services, and Staff rotation. Conclusion: While various strategies were adopted globally to mitigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, these strategies need contextualization to be effective and sustainably incorporated into routine care to ensure continuity of and access to TB and other healthcare services.

Implementation of the Automated Medication Dispensing System-Early Lessons From Eswatini.

Objectives: This article describes the implementation of an automated medication dispensing system (AMDS) in Eswatini to increase medication access and presents the early lessons from this implementation. Methods: The AMDS was installed at four health facilities across two regions through collaborative stakeholder engagement. Healthcare workers were trained, and clients who met the inclusion criteria accessed their medications from the system. Each step of the implementation was documented and summarised in this article. Results: Early lessons suggest that implementation of the AMDS is acceptable and feasible to clients and healthcare workers and that phased introduction of medication classes, commencing with antiretroviral therapy (ART) and incorporating other medications in later phases is feasible. Additionally, improved client-centred messaging and communication, consistent power supply and internet network connectivity, and scheduling medication pickup with other services increase AMDS system utilisation. Conclusion: Eswatini has many clients living with HIV and non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Easy, convenient, quick, non-stigmatising and client-centred access to ART and medication for NCDs is critical in addressing retention in care and achieving optimal treatment outcomes.

Diabetes-Tuberculosis Care in Eswatini: A Qualitative Study of Opportunities and Recommendations for Effective Services Integration.

Objective: This study describes the availability of basic services, equipment, and commodities for integrated DM-TB services, best practices by healthcare workers, and opportunities for better integration of DM-TB care in Eswatini. Methods: A qualitative design was used. Twenty-three healthcare workers participated in a survey and key informant interview. Results: Most respondents indicated DM and TB care are integrated and clients access blood pressure and fasting/random blood glucose assessment. Few respondents indicated they provide visual assessment, hearing assessment, and HbA1c testing. Respondents experienced stockouts of urinalysis strips, antihypertensive drugs, insulin, glucometer strips, and DM drugs in the previous 6 months before the interview. Four main themes emerged from the qualitative interviews-quality and current standards of care, best practices, opportunities, and recommendations to improve integrated services delivery. Conclusion: While DM care is provided for TB patients, the implementation of integrated DM-TB services is suboptimal as the quality and current standards of care vary across health facilities due to different patient-level and health system challenges. Some identified opportunities must be utilized for a successful DM-TB integration.

Diagnostic capacity for invasive fungal infections in advanced HIV disease in Africa: a continent-wide survey.

BACKGROUND: Fungal infections are common causes of death and morbidity in those with advanced HIV infection. Data on access to diagnostic tests in Africa are scarce. We aimed to evaluate the diagnostic capacity for invasive fungal infections in advanced HIV disease in Africa. METHODS: We did a continent-wide survey by collecting data from 48 of 49 target countries across Africa with a population of more than 1 million; for Lesotho, only information on the provision of cryptococcal antigen testing was obtained. This survey covered 99·65% of the African population. We did the survey in six stages: first, questionnaire development, adaptation, and improvement; second, questionnaire completion by in-country respondents; third, questionnaire review and data analysis followed by video conference calls with respondents; fourth, external validation from public or private sources; fifth, country validation by video conference with senior figures in the Ministry of Health; and sixth, through five regional webinars led by the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention with individual country profiles exchanged by email. Data was compiled and visualised using the Quantum Geographic Information System software and Natural Earth vectors to design maps showing access. FINDINGS: Data were collected between Oct 1, 2020, and Oct 31, 2022 in the 48 target countries. We found that cryptococcal antigen testing is frequently accessible to 358·39 million (25·5%) people in 14 African countries. Over 1031·49 million (73·3%) of 1·4 billion African people have access to a lumbar puncture. India ink microscopy is frequently accessible to 471·03 million (33·5%) people in 23 African countries. About 1041·62 million (74·0%) and 1105·11 million (78·5%) people in Africa do not have access to histoplasmosis and Pneumocystis pneumonia diagnostics in either private or public facilities, respectively. Fungal culture is available in 41 countries covering a population of 1·289 billion (94%) people in Africa. MRI is routinely accessible to 453·59 million (32·2%) people in Africa and occasionally to 390·58 million (27·8%) people. There was a moderate correlation between antiretroviral therapy usage and external expenditure on HIV care (R2=0·42) but almost none between external expenditure and AIDS death rate (R2=0·18), when analysed for 40 African countries. INTERPRETATION: This survey highlights the enormous challenges in the diagnosis of HIV-associated Pneumocystis pneumonia, cryptococcal disease, histoplasmosis, and other fungal infections in Africa. Urgent political and global health leadership could improve the diagnosis of fungal infections in Africa, reducing avoidable deaths. FUNDING: Global Action For Fungal Infections.

Detecting tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum women in Eswatini.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis diagnosis in pregnancy is complex because tuberculosis symptoms are often masked by physiological symptoms of pregnancy. Untreated tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum women may lead to maternal morbidity and low birth weight. Tuberculosis in HIV-positive pregnant women increases the risk of maternal and infant mortality. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine tuberculosis prevalence stratified by HIV status and identify screening algorithms that maximise detection of active tuberculosis among pregnant and postpartum women in Eswatini. METHODS: Women were enrolled at antenatal and postnatal clinics in Eswatini for tuberculosis screening and diagnostic investigations from 01 April to 30 November 2015 in a cross-sectional study. Sputum samples were collected from all participants for tuberculosis diagnostic tests (smear microscopy, GeneXpert, MGIT culture). Blood and urine samples were collected from HIV-positive women for cluster-of-differentiation-4 cell count, interferon gamma release assay and tuberculosis lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan tests. RESULTS: We enrolled 990 women; 52% were pregnant and 47% were HIV-positive. The prevalence of tuberculosis among HIV-positive pregnant women was 5% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2-7) and among postpartum women it was 1% (95%CI: -1-3). Tuberculosis prevalence was 2% (95%CI: 0-3) in HIV-negative pregnant women and 1% (95%CI: -1-2) in HIV-negative postpartum women. The national tuberculosis symptom screening tool failed to identify women who tested tuberculosis-culture positive. CONCLUSION: Routine tuberculosis symptom screening alone is insufficient to rule out tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum women. Only sputum culture maximised the detection of tuberculosis, indicating a need to balance access and cost in developing countries.

Prevalence of cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) among HIV-positive patients in Eswatini, 2014-2015.

BACKGROUND: Cryptococcal meningitis is a leading cause of death amongst people living with HIV. However, routine cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) screening was not in the national guidelines in Eswatini. OBJECTIVES: A cross-sectional study was conducted between August 2014 and March 2015 to examine CrAg prevalence at Mbabane Government Hospital in Eswatini. METHODS: We collected urine and whole blood from antiretroviral-therapy-naïve patients with HIV and a cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) counts < 200 cells/mm3 for plasma and urine CrAg lateral flow assay (LFA) screening at the national HIV reference laboratory. Two CD4 cut-off points were used to estimate CrAg prevalence: CD4 < 100 and < 200 cells/mm3. Sensitivity and specificity of urine CrAg LFA was compared to plasma CrAg LFA. RESULTS: Plasma CrAg prevalence was 4% (8/182, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2-8) amongst patients with CD4 counts of < 200 cells/mm3, and 8% (8/102, 95% CI: 3-15) amongst patients with CD4 counts of < 100 cells/mm3. Urine CrAg LFA had a sensitivity of 100% (95% CI: 59-100) and a specificity of 80% (95% CI: 72-86) compared with plasma CrAg LFA tests for patients with CD4 < 200 cells/mm3. Forty-three per cent of 99 patients with CD4 < 100 were at World Health Organization clinical stages I or II. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of CrAg in Eswatini was higher than the current global estimate of 6% amongst HIV-positive people with CD4 < 100 cell/mm3, indicating the importance of initiating a national screening programme. Mechanisms for CrAg testing, training, reporting, and drug and commodity supply issues are important considerations before national implementation.

High uptake of antiretroviral therapy among HIV-positive TB patients receiving co-located services in Swaziland.

BACKGROUND: Swaziland has the highest adult HIV prevalence and second highest rate of TB/HIV coinfection globally. Recently, the Ministry of Health and partners have increased integration and co-location of TB/HIV services, but the timing of antiretroviral therapy (ART) relative to TB treatment-a marker of program quality and predictor of outcomes-is unknown. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective analysis of programmatic data from 11 purposefully-sampled facilities to evaluate timely ART provision for HIV-positive TB patients enrolled on TB treatment between July-November 2014. Timely ART was defined as within two weeks of TB treatment initiation for patients with CD4<50/µL or missing, and within eight weeks otherwise. Descriptive statistics were estimated and logistic regression used to assess factors independently associated with timely ART. RESULTS: Of 466 HIV-positive TB patients, 51.5% were male, median age was 35 (interquartile range [IQR]: 29-42), and median CD4 was 137/µL (IQR: 58-268). 189 (40.6%) were on ART prior to, and five (1.8%) did not receive ART within six months of TB treatment initiation. Median time to ART after TB treatment initiation was 15 days (IQR: 14-28). Almost 90% started ART within eight weeks, and 45.5% of those with CD4<50/µL started within two weeks. Using thresholds for "timely ART" according to baseline CD4 count, 73.3% of patients overall received timely ART after TB treatment initiation. Patients with CD4 50-200/µL or ≥200/µL had significantly higher odds of timely ART than patients with CD4<50/µL, with adjusted odds ratios of 11.5 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 5.0-26.6) and 9.6 (95% CI: 4.6-19.9), respectively. TB cure or treatment completion was achieved by 71.1% of patients at six months, but this was not associated with timely ART. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the relative success of integrated and co-located TB/HIV services in Swaziland, and shows that timely ART uptake for HIV-positive TB patients can be achieved in resource-limited, but integrated settings. Gaps remain in getting patients with CD4<50/µL to receive ART within the recommended two weeks post TB treatment initiation.

Screening in Maternity to Ascertain Tuberculosis Status (SMATS) study.

BACKGROUND: Diagnosis of tuberculosis is difficult among pregnant women because the signs and symptoms of the disease, such as fatigue, shortness of breath, sweating, cough, and mild fever are similar to some manifestations of pregnancy. It is particularly challenging among HIV-infected women as symptoms are often masked or atypical. Currently, WHO recommends a standard four-symptom screening tool for pregnant and lactating women. There is evidence from South Africa that this screening tool (which, despite complex symptomology in this population, recommends identification of patients with weight loss, fever, current cough and night sweats), may be missing true active TB cases. However there exist several laboratory and clinical procedures that have the potential to improve the sensitivity and specificity of this screening tool. METHODS: This study will evaluate the sensitivity and specificity of the current TB screening tool for pregnant and lactating women, both HIV positive and negative. We will also assess several different enhanced screening algorithm using LAM, IGRA, TST and chest radiography and clinical/laboratory procedures and tests. The study will use a cross-sectional analytical study design involving pregnant and lactating women up to six months post-delivery attending antenatal or postnatal care, respectively in one of three selected public health units in Swaziland. Participants will be consecutively enrolled and will be in one of four groups of interest: HIV infected pregnant women, non-HIV infected pregnant women, HIV infected lactating women and non-HIV infected lactating women. DISCUSSION: We expect in conducting all procedures on all participants regardless of result of the symptom screening we may experience a high refusal rate. However, this risk will be mitigated by the long data collection period of five or more months.

Structural and Behavioral Correlates of HIV Infection among Pregnant Women in a Country with a Highly Generalized HIV Epidemic: A Cross-Sectional Study with a Probability Sample of Antenatal Care Facilities in Swaziland.

INTRODUCTION: HIV disproportionately affects women in Sub-Saharan Africa. Swaziland bears the highest HIV prevalence of 41% among pregnant women in this region. This heightened HIV-epidemic reflects the importance of context-specific interventions. Apart from routine HIV surveillance, studies that examine structural and behavioral factors associated with HIV infection among women may facilitate the revitalization of existing programs and provide insights to inform context-specific HIV prevention interventions. METHODS AND FINDINGS: This cross-sectional study employed a two-stage random cluster sampling in ten antenatal health care facilities in the Hhohho region of Swaziland in August and September 2015. Participants were eligible for the study if they were 18 years or older and had tested for HIV. Self-administered tablet-based questionnaires were used to assess HIV risk factors. Of all eligible pregnant women, 827 (92.4%) participated, out of which 297 (35.9%) were self-reportedly HIV positive. Among structural factors, family function was not significantly associated with self-reported HIV positive status, while lower than high school educational attainment (AOR, 1.65; CI, 1.14-3.38; P = 0.008), and income below minimum wage (AOR, 1.81; CI, 1.09-3.01; P = 0.021) were significantly associated with self-reported HIV positive status. Behavioral factors significantly associated with reporting a positive HIV status included; ≥2 lifetime sexual partners (AOR, 3.16; CI, 2.00-5.00; P<0.001), and ever cohabited (AOR, 2.39; CI, 1.66-3.43; P = 0.00). The most cited reason for having multiple sexual partners was financial gain. HIV/AIDS-related knowledge level was high but not associated to self-reported HIV status (P = 0.319). CONCLUSIONS: Structural and behavioral factors showed significant association with self-reported HIV infection among pregnant women in Swaziland while HIV/AIDS-related knowledge and family function did not. This suggests that HIV interventions should be reinforced taking into consideration these findings. The findings also suggest the importance of future research sensitive to the Swazi and African sociocultural contexts, especially research for family function.